‘No Human Entry’ on Paper: Outsourcing Labour, Implementation Gaps, and Everyday Illegality of Manual Scavenging in India
Nihal Raj & Manish Tiwari
What the paper says
Abstract Manual scavenging, the manual removal of human excreta without protective equipment, remains deeply rooted in India’s caste-based occupational hierarchy despite legal bans under the 1993 and 2013 Acts. Independent research reveals its persistence due to weak enforcement and the limited impact of these laws. This reflects systemic institutional neglect that perpetuates caste oppression and the deprivation of Dalit sanitation workers. Using Braverman’s labour process theory and Michael Burawoy’s concept of manufacturing consent, the paper shows how manual scavenging is reproduced through informal contracts, deskilling, and bureaucratic outsourcing. It further explains how cultural narratives and state-led initiatives, such as the Swachh Bharat campaign and the rebranding of workers as Safai Mitras, legitimise exploitation of manual scavengers in India and conceal structural violence. Based on secondary sources, including legislation, court rulings, surveys, reports, and media accounts, the study highlights the need for structural reforms beyond legal prohibition.
Evidence weight
Balanced mode · F 0.40 / M 0.15 / V 0.05 / R 0.40
| F · citation impact | 0.50 × 0.4 = 0.20 |
| M · momentum | 0.50 × 0.15 = 0.07 |
| V · venue signal | 0.50 × 0.05 = 0.03 |
| R · text relevance † | 0.50 × 0.4 = 0.20 |
† Text relevance is estimated at 0.50 on the detail page — for your query’s actual relevance score, open this paper from a search result.